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GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR WRITING ECOLOGY PAPERS
It is important that you write well, both as citizens and as scientists. These papers are a large part of your grade. Please read this entire write-up before writing your first paper, and refer to it for other papers.
The papers should be a maximum of six double spaced pages (four is better, if possible) with 1 inch margins. Most of the length of your reports will be the results and discussion sections. The report should include a brief 1-2 paragraph introduction (the purpose of the study and hypotheses to be tested), a paragraph of methods, the results, a discussion, and references. Most of the work in the reports will be yours, but if you draw upon the work of others, be sure to reference them with an in text citation (e.g., Pearson et al. 2012) and at the end of the paper use the format for the references from the journal Ecology:
Pearson, D. E., Y. K. Ortega, and S. J. Sears. 2012. Darwin's naturalization hypothesis up-close:
Intermountain grassland invaders differ morphologically and phenologically from native community dominants. Biological Invasions 14:901-913.
Some time ago, when Bill Bradshaw taught Ecology 370, he asked his teaching assistants to come up with helpful comments for students based on their experience of grading reports. Laurel Pfeifer-Meister and Bitty Roy edited their anonymous comments and added to them. Please read through this each time you prepare a report. It will aid in organizing your thoughts and help your grade.
SOME GENERAL STYLE GUIDELINES
• All reports must be internally consistent: conclusions must come from the results that you state, the results must be the product of your stated materials and methods, and the introduction should present your hypothesis in a way that shows the relevance of your study to the field of ecology.
• Your report must be typed (figures should be in computer graphics; Excel graphics are fine).
• Spelling and grammar, in addition to format, count in your grade.
• When putting your paper together, watch for these common errors:
1. The word “data” is plural (sing. datum). “This data is meaningless” is therefore incorrect. It should read, “These data are meaningless".
2. Know when to use the word “less” and the word “fewer” .
3. Make sure your verbs and subjects agree in your sentences.
4. The word “comparison” and “correlation” are often confused. Make sure that you are aware of the difference in meaning of these words.
5. Places where we collect data are SITES, not SIGHTS, and a habitat that receives little rainfall is DRIER, not DRYER, than one that is very wet.
6. Remember that when you type a scientific name for an organism, it should be in italics font, with the genus capitalized and the species in lower case (e.g., Pinus contorta for coast pine).
7. i.e. and e.g. are always followed by a comma when used in a sentence. To understand why, remember that "for example" is followed by a comma. “For example, there were fifteen trees per quadrat.”
• The text of your paper, which describes what you did, should be in the past tense. It’s not what you will do, but what you did.
• Avoid using passive voice by being direct in your writing. Use "we found" instead of "the research found". You did the work!
• If you use terms that may be unfamiliar to people outside our field (e.g., adiabatic cooling) include a brief, clear definition.
INTRODUCTION
•In your Introduction, make sure you answer such fundamental questions, such as: “Why were you sampling lichens?” “Why is it reasonable to assume that size should be correlated with fitness?”
Your Introduction should answer these questions by presenting the purpose of your study in the context of the ecological background you introduce. You should explain WHY you did your study. In other words, introduce ecological theory relevant to your experiment, and then be sure to introduce YOUR experiment (including the hypotheses to be tested).
• The introduction to your paper must include background information that indicates why your study is relevant to the field of ecology. This part of the paper is the place to include an introduction to any theories that are germane to the questions being asked.
• The background information should enable the reader to understand why your question (that you were trying to answer by doing your experiment) is interesting and important, given the current state of knowledge in the relevant area (e.g., how successional theory applies to dune communities). It should also help the reader to understand the meaning of your results, and why you drew the conclusions you did, when you present these things later in your paper.
• The Introduction section can be distinguished from the Discussion in that it is more general in terms of the biological information presented, and serves to set the overlying theme of your paper such that anyone reading it can understand the specifics that you emphasize in the Discussion in light of your Introduction.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
• The materials and methods section must include enough information so that another person could duplicate your field study and analysis. You must be specific about such details as site, sampling procedures, and criteria used to include specimens.
• Make sure that you make some initial statement about what you were trying to sample, e.g., “We sampled tree density and diversity at seven sites.” Do not jump right into a discussion of how randomization was achieved. Simply state that x was randomized. Also don’t include irrelevant details, such as how you copied over your data sheet. You must also include a description of the methods you used to analyze your data (including statistics). Explain the approaches used in the data and statistical analyses. Also tell me how the measurements you took in the field corresponded to estimates of density, diversity, equitability, etc. A sure sign of a complete Materials and Methods is that anyone could repeat your study just by reading this section.
RESULTS
• The results section must include the results of statistical analyses that are relevant to your conclusion and must not include irrelevant data and analyses. State your probability levels and the results of statistical tests. This section is the place to be specific about your hypotheses.
• If you choose to examine less than the entire database, establish your reasons for your choice ahead of time. Don’t examine the data for statistical significance and delete the non-significant data.
• Minimize redundancy.
• Do not simply refer to a figure or a table (e.g. “Table 1 shows the elevation and tree species for all 7 sites” . Highlight those aspects of the figure or table that you will discuss in the aptly named Discussion (e.g., “Juniperus occidentalis is only found at sites 1, 2, and 3 (Table 1)”.).
• Do not interpret your results here-- state them (in words). If you did a regression analysis, report the outcome--positive correlation? Negative correlation? Significance? Use a combination of words and numbers (e.g., t = 4.38, df = 5, P < 0.05). Refer to the appropriate figure. Do not include pages of calculations either.
• You shouldn’t discuss any non-significant patterns, but you should mention non-significant results. For example, "We found no significant correlation between density and rainfall (t = 1.23, df = 5, P > 0.05)." And don’t put in irrelevant figures, no matter how fascinating they may be.
• Tables and Figures
Tables have titles that go at the top and figures have legends that go at the bottom. Like your Results, your figures and tables should be understandable in isolation through their associated legend.
DISCUSSION
• The main purpose of the Discussion is to interpret the results and explain how they relate to the background provided in your Introduction and to the purpose of the study. The Discussion should briefly summarize results (and state whether or not your data supported or refuted the null hypotheses) and then put them in the context of ecological theory. This is where you answer the questions posed in the Introduction, and give the answer some meaning. It is ok if your hypotheses are not supported.
Some small amount of redundancy with Results is not a big problem, and can serve to stress key points. The bulk of this section, however, should be interpretation of these points. You must discuss the ecological implications of your statistical results. This is not easy, but it is necessary for a good paper. You should try and suggest plausible ecological reasons for the observed patterns and cite literature to support your reasoning. We went into the woods hoping to detect some ecological patterns, not significant statistics. The statistics are merely a tool with which we can get an idea of the “strength” of the patterns in question.
• The discussion section is a discussion of the results you provided in the results section. This is not the place for introductory theory; however, it is the proper place for your conclusions.
• DON’T fall back on “insufficient” information as a means of rationalizing your lack of Discussion. If you weren’t going to even speculate on the meaning of your Results (which is fine to do as long as you state that this is actually what you’re doing), you wouldn’t be writing the paper to begin with. I understand the frustration involved in feeling like you’re making generalizations or uninformed conclusions, but remember that all Ecological studies start with ignorance, questions and pilot experiments, and build from there.
REFERENCES
Any time you make a statement that is not common sense or common knowledge, you must cite a reference for that statement. Throughout your report, you need to describe and discuss your work in the context of what other scientists have done and said. In the Literature Cited, you must tell the reader where the article or book was published from which you gleaned information (and to which you referred). References contain an alphabetical list of all scientific references you used in writing the report by the last name of the author or (if there are multiple authors) first author. Please emulate reference style from the journal Ecology (http://www.esajournals.org/toc/ecol/current). A typical literature cited might read like so:
Funk, J.L. & P.M. Vitousek. 2007. Resource use efficiency and plant invasion in low- resource systems. Nature 446:1079-1081
Stutchbury, B. J. M., E. S. Morton, & W. Edwards. 1998. Extra-pair mating system of a synchronously breeding tropical songbird. J. Avian Biology 29:72-78.
Wright, W.G. 2000. Evolution of mechanisms of sensitization: Experiments in a model lineage. Bioscience 50:883-894.
Notice that these are from scientific journals and contain the year of publication, journal name, journal number and pages where the article is found. When you are referencing them in the text, they would be cited as followed:
• Invasive species have recently been shown to be more efficient than native species at using limiting resources (Funk and Vitousek 2007).
• Tropical songbirds typically display synchronous breeding (Stutchbury et al. 1998).
• Wright (2000) conducted an extensive view of the neurology literature and concluded that … Books are cited in a similar fashion, except you include the publisher (and editor if citing a book chapter).
Smith, T. M. and R. L. Smith. 2012. Elements of Ecology. 8th edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA.
D'Antonio, C. M., C. Malmstrom, S. A. Reynolds, and J. Gerlach. 2007. Ecology of Invasive Non- native Species in California Grassland. Pages 67-83 in M. R. Stromberg, J. D. Corbin, and C. M. D'Antonio, editors. California Grasslands Ecology and Management. University of California Press, Berkely and Los Angeles, California.
Good references often make a field report. If you use references only because you are required to do so and not in order to understand the topic, you might be in trouble. References that are highly relevant to your study can help you: 1) justify your experiment, 2) put it into proper context, and 3) explain your results. Very few ecologists are able to write good Introductions and Discussions without good references to back them up.