代写Strategic Planning in the Malawi Public Sector: Potential Tool for Progress or Regression?代做迭代

Strategic Planning in the Malawi Public Sector: Potential Tool for Progress or Regression?

Abstract The process of developing strategic plans in the public sector is regarded as one indicator of positive reform. in the system. The assumption is that strategic planning ensures that (just like in the private sector) public sector organizations’ operations should cost less but deliver better service. Ultimately the argument is that public sector institutional governance and responsiveness to the citizenry is not only seen but felt. However, strategic planning has to be done in an appropriate manner for it to deliver. For instance an analysis of the underlying motives, the role of leadership in the process as well as the relevance or viability of the guiding strategic planning model significantly affect the nature of expected results. In the early 2000s, the Malawi public sector embarked on a serious drive towards strategic planning process as part of its reform. package. In order to ascertain it’s potential to transform. the Malawi public service, this paper focuses at critically analyzing the strategic planning process in the Malawi public sector by among other things asking: who initiated and led the process? What approach determined the process? What is the possible potentiality of the adopted strategic planning approach in enhancing the reform. agenda in Malawi? Based on interviews with senior officers in key Malawi public sector institutions, the paper concludes that the strategic planning process is ‘transitional and fluid’ hence lacks the clout to effectively enhance reforms in this sector. Another finding is that lack of effective leadership has largely contributed to the status quo.

Keywords Strategic planning.Strategicmanagement.Public sector reform.New Public Management . Leadership . Malawi

Introduction

This paper analyses the strategic planning process in the Malawi public sector so as to ascertain whether it has the potential to spearhead and sustain reform. in the sector. Internationally, when strategic planning and management was introduced in organisa-tions in 1950s, the private sector fully embraced it as an essential organisational tool whilst public sector organisations completely ignored it and solely relied on national constitutions, laws and other strict regulations and procedures (Nartisa et al. 2012). When cost cutting measures and a quest for efficiency in the public sector became apparent through New Public Management (NPM) reforms, the rationale for strategic planning in the public sector was considered a priority. The temptation has always been to copy and paste practices from the private sector into the public sector domain. Although it is often argued that since the introduction of NPM “the greatest teacher of public administration is private sector”, it is not necessarily true that strategic planning approaches in the public sector have to conform. to those applicable in the private sector because these organisations still operate in different environments (Nartisa et al. 2012: 241). Apart for the quest for reform, one of the reasons for adopting strategic planning in the public sector was a response to unpredictability in the environment which most public sector organizations faced in the late 1970s (Johnsen 2015). In this case, the change in the environment meant that some of the traditional planning models such as the Planning, Programming and Budgeting system (PPBS) were no longer deemed relevant (Table 1).

The Malawi Growth and Development Strategy II (MGDS) acknowledges the importance of the public sector hence in sub-theme four on ‘Public Sector Management’, the strategy mentions that its goal is “to deliver services to the public in an efficient, demand driven and effective manner” and one of the expected outcomes is “Enhanced implementation of Public Sector Reform. programmes” (GoM 2011:68). Strategic planning is a core tool in this reform. package and currently the Department of Human Resource Management and Development (DHRMD) plays a leading role in guiding Ministries in the process. Within the identified theoretical framework, this paper firstly analyzes DHRMD in relation to the strategic planning process and link this process to its potentiality to bring about positive changes in the sector. Secondly, the paper examines the extent or practicality to which strategic plans are interrelated to performance of employees in the sector.

Several studies have confirmed that public sector reform. in Malawi is facing numerous challenges or even failing (Kayuni 2013; Tambulasi and Kayuni 2013; Tambulasi 2010; Tambulasi 2009 and Tambulasi 2007) but these studies have mainly focused on elements of reform. and not the framework itself which this paper alludes to strategic planning process. Strategic planning is envisioned as setting the pace and tone of the reform. process because it integrates the human, structural and other organisational resources in a focused manner (Kriemadis and Theakou 2007 and Nartisa et al. 2012). This entails that failure in strategic planning leads to failure of the whole reform. process itself. Kriemadis and Theakou (2007) argue that a model that guide strategic planning in the public sector need not be uniform. because public sector organisations are not the same and any strategic model or approach “should acknowl-edge the key differences that exist in that sector”. What has been observed in most public sector planning process, including Malawi, is that they tend to follow the exact blue print and this may not lead to achievement of the goals. More importantly, it is not simply undertaking a strategic plan that matters in the public sector but the nature of the approach adopted may guarantee its success or failure as well. This important element has not adequately been acknowledged and examined in the Malawi public sector reform. literature. Based on Bunning’s (1992) observations (highlighted below), this paper asks the following questions in the Malawian strategic planning process: who initiated and led the process? What specific internal and external factors affected the process? Which approach or model guides the development of the plans?

Institutionally, the paper mainly focused on the Department of Human Resource Management and Development (DHRMD) as well as the Public Sector Reform. Unit in the Office of the President and Cabinet (OPC). The selection of these institutions was based on the fact DHRMD is the key institution in guidance and development of strategic plans for the whole civil service while the Public Sector Reform. Unit oversees all reform. plans hence directly benefits from plans developed by DHRMD. Other public sector institutions affiliated to DHRMD and which also plays a role in strategic planning were included in the study and these are: Performance Enhancement Department; Department of Statutory Corporations; and Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development. Selected 21 key informant interviews were conducted with staff from these key institutions followed by a comprehensive analysis of numerous key government publications related to strategic management and plan-ning in the Malawi public sector.

Concept of Strategic Planning and Management and its Relevance in the Public Sector

The paper acknowledges that although strategic management and strategic planning are often interchangeably used and regarded as the same, they are actually different (Poister and Streib 1999; Elbanna 2013). For instance Pina et al. (2011: 554) argues that “strategic management was a response to the shortcomings of strategic planning which produced plans but not actions or visible changes”. In this case, strategic management is more encompassing as is touches on the “behavioral phenomenon” which managers deal with such as entire management of planning, control and implementation of the strategy itself. Elbanna (2013: 246) argues that the terms strategic management is more often used in academia, whereas strategic planning is often used in the business world. Whilst recognizing the significance of these differences, this study follows other authors by interchangeably using these concepts because they are closely linked to each other.

According to Johnsen (2015) strategy in the private sector is mainly assumes “rivalry and competition in markets” but in the public sector it assumes the role of improving performance for effective and efficient public service delivery. Hansen and Ferlie (2014) point out that “It is only recently that strategic management has received attention within the public administration literature” and the concept itself, within public administration, is currently still developing (Johnsen 2015). In this regard, Pina et al. (2011) argues that the application of strategic management in the public sector is still a controversial issue which has many people supporting or rejecting the idea but the trend now is that there is a growing consensus towards the view that strategic management in the public sector is very important for enhanced performance (Hansen and Ferlie 2014). Specifically, Johnsen (2015) points out that critical analysis of strategic management and planning in the public sector, although not fully devel-oped, is rapidly expanding since mid-1980s. Initially the emphasis was on conceptual matters but the trend in 2000s has been on empirical studies that mainly focus on cases in the USA and UK (Johnsen 2015). According to Johnsen (2015) studies in the USA in 1990s showed that “strategic planning in government was a successful innovation that contributed positively towards improving the agencies’ performance”. Some authors such as Vinzant and Vinzant (1996) have on the other hand concluded that public sectors organisations are not meant to embark on strategic planning. However this paper agrees with Nartisa et al. (2012: 243), and the growing body of other authors, who argue that strategic planning is relevant and applicable in the public sector because “Public administration is becoming more flexible and transparent meeting the needs of customer instead of bureaucracy”.

As compared to the private sector, few studies have examined strategic planning and management in the public sector in general (Poister and Streib 2004 and Nartisa et al. 2012). Although there has been a growing interest in empirical research in public sector strategic management and planning there are still several areas that need to be examined systematically (Ugboro et al. 2011)- especially in developing countries’ context. For instance, the following selected studies demonstrate a sample of a myriad of gaps in the field of public sector strategic management and planning: Poister et al. (2010:522) point out that although there is an increase in the public sector literature focusing on strategic planning and management “there has been little effort to synthesize what has been learned… how they are implemented, and the results they generate”. In this case Poister et al. (2010) argues that there is need for comprehensive studies on how strategic planning affects performance and outcome. Johnsen (2015) also calls for future research to focus on “how different theories and thinking underpin public sector strategic management”. On the other hand, Bryson et al. (2010) calls for more studies that examine the link between strategic planning and organizational learning. Boyne and Walker (2010) argues that what is required in the field is more understanding on how different strategic approaches relate to different dimensions of performance as well as “how different national and public sector contexts affect strategic management”.

Approaches of Strategic Management and Planning in the Public Sector

This paper agrees with Johnsen’s (2015) observation that “the literature on strategic management in the public sector has so far not produced any overarching framework of theories in use” but several typologies or models have been developed. Based on a literature survey, Johnsen (2015) and Favoreu et al. (2015:1) identifies the following typologies or models which are prevalent in the public sector strate-gic planning and management:

Bunning’s Framework

This paper uses the conceptual frame. developed by Bunning (1992) in order to determine the potential of a public sector planning process to achieve the desired effects. The approach by Bunning is arguably very much relevant because it does not only capture some of the core elements highlighted in the other approaches above but it also convincingly explains the motives and its corresponding potential outcome of strategic planning approaches in the public sector. Since this paper is (among other things) meant to address the potentiality of the adopted strategic planning approach in enhancing the reform. agenda in Malawi, Bunning’s approach is very much ideal since this is one of core questions it intends to address.

Based on his vast experience as public sector strategic planning consultant, Bunning in his classic work notes that the most serious problems in establishing an effective strategic planning system in the public sector is derived from the underlying approach which it may adopt. In this case, Bunning (1992:55–56) identified three different approaches in the public sector planning which also leads to different problems: First, strategic planning is taken as a ritual- “to meet the expectations or demands of others” hence focus is to produce something on paper and implementation is not a serious concern. Once the plan is made efforts are scaled down and employees’ attention is drawn to other non-essential things. The underlying activity is conformity and/or pessimism. Second, strategic planning is taken as a decision-making process- “the purpose of which is to resolve what should be done” and attention to the political, social and technical system as an interactive entity is not considered hence when difficulties emerge they tend to surprise the planners because their planning process was narrow and myopic. The underlying activity is rigid “rational, impersonal goal setting and decision making”. Third, there is what is known as the consensus-seeking process and in this case “the purpose of which is to identify a strategy which is not objectionable to any of the major power holders who would be affected”. The needs of the public and clients are not seriously considered but the plan is sensitive to the needs of power holders. The underlying activity is in this scenario is “political bargaining and contracting”. Bunning suggests that the best approach in the public sector is a learning approach which enhances organisational learning and it is “a very powerful self-correcting mechanism and guidance” and has several advantages when applied (See Appendix 1 for more details).

Bunning’s framework tallies with Favoreu et al. (2015) who asks important questions in their study- in relation to public sector adoption of strategic plans. Favoreu et al. asks:

Is strategy formulation in the public sector based on: formal, rational and deductive processes; or, conversely, policy approaches tinged with compromise, negotiation and power games, leading to incremental changes of limited scope; or, again, a mixed design, combining long-term strategic intent and ‘as we go along’ strategy building (Favoreu et al. 2015:1).

The emphasis in this paper is to analyze the nature of strategic planning adopted (process) and then project its possible consequences in either progressing or regressing public sector reforms in the country. As Bryson et al. (2010) argues, in the public sector, the process of developing and implementing the plan is at least as important as the expected result of the process.

Role of Professional and Political Leadership in Public Sector Strategic Management

Apart from use of the above mentioned model, the paper also specifically focused on the role of leadership in strategic planning and management in the public sector. Fard, et al. (2011:386) observes that “successful implementation of strategic management in public organizations depends upon the presence of a strong leadership” (emphasis added). Furthermore, Kriemadis and Theakou (2007: 35) point out that “the way that a strategic plan is developed depends on the nature of the organization’s leadership, culture of the organization, complexity of the organization’s environment, size of the organization, expertise of planners, etc” (emphasis added). These elements need to be considered when discussing strategic management and planning in the public sector. More importantly, Fard et al. (2011:386) brings in the political dimension of leadership by arguing that:

Since the public sector is highly influenced by political and economic entities, a given strategic management system can easily end at the next election cycle. Because of political influence, the length of the appointed term for political managers in public organizations is relatively shorter than in private organizations.

Favoreu et al. (2015:1) extensively argues for special leadership characteristics in ensuring that strategic management works by highlighting the relevance of bringing together what he calls a ‘rational logic’, a ‘political logic’ and a ‘collaborative logic’ which would assist “public managers to build skills in the development and manage-ment of inter-organizational networks and interpersonal relationships”. In other words, leadership is a critical ‘silent’ link to ensure that a public sector institution ably adopts and implements a strategic plan. More importantly, it may also explain why a particular plan is being adopted.

Contextual Issues: Political Transitions and Public Sector Reforms in Malawi

According to the latest National Population and Housing Census of 2008, Malawi has a population 13.07 million (NSO 1998) and over 80 % of the population live in rural areas. The economy is largely agro-based. Politically, Malawi became independent from British colonialism on 6th July 1964 with Dr. Banda of the Malawi Congress Party as the country’s head and the country adopted a constitution which recognised one party system of governance with Dr. Banda as Life President. His reign ended in 1994 when Malawi embraced the multiparty system of governance after a referendum which showed an overwhelming majority advocating change. Bakili Muluzi of the United Democratic Front (UDF) became the next president of the country under a newly drafted constitution which limited presidential terms to two terms of five years each. After his third term bid failed, he appointed his successor, Bingu wa Mutharika, who managed to win the 2004 presidential elections under the UDF ticket, but later resigned from the party to form. his own Democratic People’s Party (DPP) after experiencing an internal party power struggle with the former president. In the 2009 elections, Bingu had a landslide victory with his party retaining a majority number of seats in parliament. Soon after winning his second term, Bingu fell out with his Vice President, Mrs. Joyce Banda, and she was fired from the ruling party but she could legally not be fired as Vice President; she later formed her own party, the People’s Party (PP). On 5th April 2011 Bingu died and Joyce Banda succeeded him as President to complete the remainder of his term and practically her party became the ruling party. In the May 2014 national general elections, Mrs. Joyce Banda lost to Peter Mutharika of DPP (by a simple majority vote of 36.4 %). Mrs. Joyce Banda trailed third at 20.2 % while the runner-up was Lazarus Chakwera of Malawi Congress Party (MCP) at 27.8 %.

According to Tambulasi and Kayuni (2013), Public sector reforms in Malawi can be categorised into two: The first- generation reforms and the second-generation reforms. The first-generation reforms refer to those reforms implemented in the Banda era while the second- generation reforms are those implemented in the democratic era. First generation reforms, in the post-independence period, were epitomised by the Commission led by Thomas Skinner. Its main task was to recommend the proper establishment of a Malawian rather than British oriented civil service and the commission recommended a new salary structure and some changes in the conditions of service. The implementation of the Skinner report, among other things, contributed to the cabinet crisis of 1964 because it was resented by most cabinet ministers and the civil service in general. Another major reform was the outcome of the the Civil Service Review Commission (also called the Herbecq Review Commission) which was instituted in 1985. The Herbecq Review’s recommendations focused on human resources management and fi-nancial management (Msosa 1998:24).

In relation to second generation reforms, there were many forces that contributed such as the as socioeconomic, political, and administrative. After the new democratic dispensation of 1994, the new UDF led government felt that the Banda era was too oppressive and perpetuated poverty in the country hence wanted to focus on poverty alleviation programmes. Inspired by NPM reforms championed by World Bank, the government felt that one of the best ways to combat poverty would be to ensure that the civil service is reformed. As is the case with all NPM inspired reforms the following were introduced: privatisation, decentrali sation, public sector performance management, new financial managements and salary restructuring. In 1996, a civil service reform. plan was introduced referred to as the Civil Service Action Plan (CSAP). The plan was meant to improve efficiency and effectiveness of the civil service and financial management. The CSAP recommended the following reforms:

& Rationalisation of institutional mandates and their realignment with policy objectives;

& Improvement in governance and public sector ethics, by establishing an ACB with oversight and investigative powers;

& Improvements in civil service performance, through reforms in personnel manage-ment and public sector pay;

& Decentralisation of service delivery and development management functions through the creation of representative Local Government in rural areas;

& Strengthening public expenditure management focusing on improvements in re-source allocation and expenditure control through the implementation of the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) where the budget becomes out-come oriented;

& Contracting out some services such as security, cleaning office equipment, and maintenance to the private sector (Tambulasi and Kayuni 2013).

This plan was followed up with another 2002 called the Public Sector Management Reform. Program (PSMRP). The current overarching development policy for Malawi, the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS II) paper, recognises the role of reforms hence commits itself to establish and sustain efficiency and effectiveness in public sector management.

Soon after winning the May 2014 elections, the DPP led government placed public sector reforms high on its agenda. In June 2014, the president appointed a Public Service Reform. Commission chaired by the Vice President Saulos K. Chilima. The aim of this Public Service Reform. Commission is to facilitate the creation of an effective and efficient Public Service in the country. On 11th February 2015, the president launched its report. Among other things, the report recommends creation of new structure which will monitor public service reforms and also change in the process of hiring senior public service managers.